Methods of Modifying Eukaryotic Cells

ABSTRACT

A method for engineering and utilizing large DNA vectors to target, via homologous recombination, and modify, in any desirable fashion, endogenous genes and chromosomal loci in eukaryotic cells. These large DNA targeting vectors for eukaryotic cells, termed LTVECs, are derived from fragments of cloned genomic DNA larger than those typically used by other approaches intended to perform homologous targeting in eukaryotic cells. Also provided is a rapid and convenient method of detecting eukaryotic cells in which the LTVEC has correctly targeted and modified the desired endogenous gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci) as well as the use of these cells to generate organisms bearing the genetic modification.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/719,842, filed Dec. 19, 2012 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/719,819, filed on Dec. 19, 2012, both of which are continuations of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/154,976, filed Jun. 7, 2011, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/595,427, filed Nov. 9, 2006, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/624,044, filed Jul. 21, 2003, now abandoned, which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/784,859, filed Feb. 16, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,596,541; each of which is incorporated by reference herein.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The field of this invention is a method for engineering and utilizing large DNA vectors to target, via homologous recombination, and modify, in any desirable fashion, endogenous genes and chromosomal loci in eukaryotic cells. The field also encompasses the use of these cells to generate organisms bearing the genetic modification, the organisms, themselves, and methods of use thereof.

BACKGROUND

The use of LTVECs provides substantial advantages over current methods. For example, since these are derived from DNA fragments larger than those currently used to generate targeting vectors, LTVECs can be more rapidly and conveniently generated from available libraries of large genomic DNA fragments (such as BAC and PAC libraries) than targeting vectors made using current technologies. In addition, larger modifications as well as modifications spanning larger genomic regions can be more conveniently generated than using current technologies. Furthermore, the present invention takes advantage of long regions of homology to increase the targeting frequency of “hard to target” loci, and also diminishes the benefit, if any, of using isogenic DNA in these targeting vectors.

The present invention thus provides for a rapid, convenient, and streamlined method for systematically modifying virtually all the endogenous genes and chromosomal loci of a given organism.

Gene targeting by means of homologous recombination between homologous exogenous DNA and endogenous chromosomal sequences has proven to be an extremely valuable way to create deletions, insertions, design mutations, correct gene mutations, introduce transgenes, or make other genetic modifications in mice. Current methods involve using standard targeting vectors, with regions of homology to endogenous DNA typically totaling less than 10-20 kb, to introduce the desired genetic modification into mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells, followed by the injection of the altered ES cells into mouse embryos to transmit these engineered genetic modifications into the mouse germline (Smithies et al., Nature, 317:230-234, 1985; Thomas et al., Cell, 51:503-512, 1987; Koller et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 86:8927-8931, 1989; Kuhn et al., Science, 254:707-710, 1991; Thomas et al., Nature, 346:847-850, 1990; Schwartzberg et al., Science, 246:799-803, 1989; Doetschman et al., Nature, 330:576-578, 1987; Thomson et al., Cell, 5:313-321, 1989; DeChiara et al., Nature, 345:78-80, 1990; U.S. Pat. No. 5,789,215, issued Aug. 4, 1998 in the name of GenPharm International) In these current methods, detecting the rare ES cells in which the standard targeting vectors have correctly targeted and modified the desired endogenous gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci) requires sequence information outside of the homologous targeting sequences contained within the targeting vector. Assays for successful targeting involve standard Southern blotting or long PCR (see for example Cheng, et al., Nature, 369:684-5, 1994; U.S. Pat. No. 5,436,149) from sequences outside the targeting vector and spanning an entire homology arm (see Definitions); thus, because of size considerations that limit these methods, the size of the homology arms are restricted to less than 10-20 kb in total (Joyner, The Practical Approach Series, 293, 1999).

The ability to utilize targeting vectors with homology arms larger than those used in current methods would be extremely valuable. For example, such targeting vectors could be more rapidly and conveniently generated from available libraries containing large genomic inserts (e.g. BAC or PAC libraries) than targeting vectors made using current technologies, in which such genomic inserts have to be extensively characterized and trimmed prior to use. In addition, larger modifications as well as modifications spanning larger genomic regions could be more conveniently generated and in fewer steps than using current technologies. Furthermore, the use of long regions of homology could increase the targeting frequency of “hard to target” loci in eukaryotic cells, since the targeting of homologous recombination in eukaryotic cells appears to be related to the total homology contained within the targeting vector (Deng and Capecchi, Mol Cell Biol, 12:3365-71, 1992). In addition, the increased targeting frequency obtained using long homology arms could diminish any potential benefit that can be derived from using isogenic DNA in these targeting vectors.

The problem of engineering precise modifications into very large genomic fragments, such as those cloned in BAC libraries, has largely been solved through the use of homologous recombination in bacteria (Zhang, et al., Nat Genet, 20:123-8, 1998; Yang, et al., Nat Biotechnol, 15:859-65, 1997; Angrand, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 27:e16, 1999; Muyrers, et al., Nucleic Acids Res, 27:1555-7, 1999; Narayanan, et al., Gene Ther, 6:442-7, 1999), allowing for the construction of vectors containing large regions of homology to eukaryotic endogenous genes or chromosomal loci. However, once made, these vectors have not been generally useful for modifying endogenous genes or chromosomal loci via homologous recombination because of the difficulty in detecting rare correct targeting events when homology arms are larger than 10-20 kb (Joyner supra). Consequently, vectors generated using bacterial homologous recombination from BAC genomic fragments must still be extensively trimmed prior to use as targeting vectors (Hill et al., Genomics, 64:111-3, 2000). Therefore, there is still a need for a rapid and convenient methodology that makes possible the use of targeting vectors containing large regions of homology so as to modify endogenous genes or chromosomal loci in eukaryotic cells.

In accordance with the present invention, Applicants provide novel methods that enables the use of targeting vectors containing large regions of homology so as to modify endogenous genes or chromosomal loci in eukaryotic cells via homologous recombination. Such methods overcome the above-described limitations of current technologies. In addition, the skilled artisan will readily recognize that the methods of the invention are easily adapted for use with any genomic DNA of any eukaryotic organism including, but not limited to, animals such as mouse, rat, other rodent, or human, as well as plants such as soy, corn and wheat.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with the present invention, Applicants have developed a novel, rapid, streamlined, and efficient method for creating and screening eukaryotic cells which contain modified endogenous genes or chromosomal loci. This novel methods combine, for the first time: 1. Bacterial homologous recombination to precisely engineer a desired genetic modification within a large cloned genomic fragment, thereby creating a large targeting vector for use in eukaryotic cells (LTVECs); 2. Direct introduction of these LTVECs into eukaryotic cells to modify the endogenous chromosomal locus of interest in these cells; and 3. An analysis to determine the rare eukaryotic cells in which the targeted allele has been modified as desired, involving an assay for modification of allele (MOA) of the parental allele that does not require sequence information outside of the targeting sequence, such as, for example, quantitative PCR.

A preferred embodiment of the invention is a method for genetically modifying an endogenous gene or chromosomal locus in eukaryotic cells, comprising: a) obtaining a large cloned genomic fragment containing a DNA sequence of interest; b) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the large cloned genomic fragment of (a) to create a large targeting vector for use in the eukaryotic cells (LTVEC); c) introducing the LTVEC of (b) into the eukaryotic cells to modify the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus in the cells; and d) using a quantitative assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the eukaryotic cells of (c) to identify those eukaryotic cells in which the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus has been genetically modified. Another embodiment of the invention is a method wherein the genetic modification to the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus comprises deletion of a coding sequence, gene segment, or regulatory element; alteration of a coding sequence, gene segment, or regulatory element; insertion of a new coding sequence, gene segment, or regulatory element; creation of a conditional allele; or replacement of a coding sequence or gene segment from one species with an homologous or orthologous coding sequence from a different species. An alternative embodiment of the invention is a method wherein the alteration of a coding sequence, gene segment, or regulatory element comprises a substitution, addition, or fusion, wherein the fusion comprises an epitope tag or bifunctional protein. Yet another embodiment of the invention is a method wherein the quantitative assay comprises quantitative PCR, comparative genomic hybridization, isothermic DNA amplification, or quantitative hybridization to an immobilized probe, wherein the quantitative PCR comprises TAQMAN® technology or quantitative PCR using molecular beacons. Another preferred embodiment of the invention is a method wherein the eukaryotic cell is a mammalian embryonic stem cell and in particular wherein the embryonic stem cell is a mouse, rat, or other rodent embryonic stem cell. Another preferred embodiment of the invention is a method wherein the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus is a mammalian gene or chromosomal locus, preferably a human gene or chromosomal locus or a mouse, rat, or other rodent gene or chromosomal locus. An additional preferred embodiment is one in which the LTVEC is capable of accommodating large DNA fragments greater than 20 kb, and in particular large DNA fragments greater than 100 kb. Another preferred embodiment is a genetically modified endogenous gene or chromosomal locus that is produced by the method of the invention. Yet another preferred embodiment is a genetically modified eukaryotic cell that is produced by the method of the invention. A preferred embodiment of the invention is a non-human organism containing the genetically modified endogenous gene or chromosomal locus produced by the method of the invention. Also preferred in a non-human organism produced from the genetically modified eukaryotic cells or embryonic stem cells produced by the method of the invention.

A preferred embodiment is a non-human organism containing a genetically modified endogenous gene or chromosomal locus, produced by a method comprising the steps of: a) obtaining a large cloned genomic fragment containing a DNA sequence of interest; b) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the large cloned genomic fragment of (a) to create a large targeting vector (LTVEC) for use in embryonic stem cells; c) introducing the LTVEC of (b) into the embryonic stem cells to modify the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus in the cells; d) using a quantitative assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the embryonic stem cells of (c) to identify those embryonic stem cells in which the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus has been genetically modified; e) introducing the embryonic stem cell of (d) into a blastocyst; and f) introducing the blastocyst of (e) into a surrogate mother for gestation.

An additional preferred embodiment of the invention is a non-human organism containing a genetically modified endogenous gene or chromosomal locus, produced by a method comprising the steps of: a) obtaining a large cloned genomic fragment containing a DNA sequence of interest; b) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the large cloned genomic fragment of (a) to create a large targeting vector for use in eukaryotic cells (LTVEC); c) introducing the LTVEC of (b) into the eukaryotic cells to genetically modify the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus in the cells; d) using a quantitative assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the eukaryotic cells of (c) to identify those eukaryotic cells in which the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus has been genetically modified; e) removing the nucleus from the eukaryotic cell of (d); f) introducing the nucleus of (e) into an oocyte; and g) introducing the oocyte of (f) into a surrogate mother for gestation.

Yet another preferred embodiment is a non-human organism containing a genetically modified endogenous gene or chromosomal locus, produced by a method comprising the steps of: a) obtaining a large cloned genomic fragment containing a DNA sequence of interest; b) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the large cloned genomic fragment of (a) to create a large targeting vector for use in eukaryotic cells (LTVEC); c) introducing the LTVEC of (b) into the eukaryotic cells to genetically modify the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus in the cells; d) using a quantitative assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the eukaryotic cells of (c) to identify those eukaryotic cells in which the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus has been genetically modified; e) fusing the eukaryotic cell of (d) with another eukaryotic cell; f) introducing the fused eukaryotic cell of (e) into a surrogate mother for gestation.

A preferred embodiment of the invention is a method for genetically modifying an endogenous gene or chromosomal locus of interest in mouse embryonic stem cells, comprising: a) obtaining a large cloned genomic fragment greater than 20 kb which contains a DNA sequence of interest, wherein the large cloned DNA fragment is homologous to the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus; b) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the large cloned genomic fragment of (a) to create a large targeting vector for use in the mouse embryonic stem cells, wherein the genetic modification is deletion of a coding sequence, gene segment, or regulatory element; c) introducing the large targeting vector of (b) into the mouse embryonic stem cells to modify the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus in the cells; and d) using a quantitative assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the mouse embryonic stem cells of (c) to identify those mouse embryonic stem cells in which the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus has been genetically modified, wherein the quantitative assay is quantitative PCR. Also preferred is a genetically modified mouse embryonic stem cell produced by this method; a mouse containing a genetically modified endogenous gene or chromosomal locus produced by this method; and a mouse produced from the genetically modified mouse embryonic stem cell.

Another preferred embodiment is a mouse containing a genetically modified endogenous gene or chromosomal locus of interest, produced by a method comprising the steps of: a) obtaining a large cloned genomic fragment greater than 20 kb which contains a DNA sequence of interest, wherein the large cloned DNA fragment is homologous to the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus; b) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the large cloned genomic fragment of (a) to create a large targeting vector for use in the mouse embryonic stem cells, wherein the genetic modification is deletion of a coding sequence, gene segment, or regulatory element; c) introducing the large targeting vector of (b) into the mouse embryonic stem cells to modify the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus in the cells; and d) using a quantitative assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the mouse embryonic stem cells of (c) to identify those mouse embryonic stem cells in which the endogenous gene or chromosomal locus has been genetically modified, wherein the quantitative assay is quantitative PCR; e) introducing the mouse embryonic stem cell of (d) into a blastocyst; and f) introducing the blastocyst of (e) into a surrogate mother for gestation.

One embodiment of the invention is a method of replacing, in whole or in part, in a non-human eukaryotic cell, an endogenous immunoglobulin variable region gene locus with an homologous or orthologous human gene locus comprising: a) obtaining a large cloned genomic fragment containing, in whole or in part, the homologous or orthologous human gene locus; b) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the cloned genomic fragment of (a) to create a large targeting vector for use in the eukaryotic cells (LTVEC); c) introducing the LTVEC of (b) into the eukaryotic cells to replace, in whole or in part, the endogenous immunoglobulin variable gene locus; and d) using a quantitative assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the eukaryotic cells of (c) to identify those eukaryotic cells in which the endogenous immunoglobulin variable region gene locus has been replaced, in whole or in part, with the homologous or orthologous human gene locus.

Another embodiment is a method of replacing, in whole or in part, in a non-human eukaryotic cell, an endogenous immunoglobulin variable region gene locus with an homologous or orthologous human gene locus further comprising the steps: e) obtaining a large cloned genomic fragment containing a part of the homologous or orthologous human gene locus that differs from the fragment of (a); f) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the cloned genomic fragment of (e) to create a second LTVEC; g) introducing the second LTVEC of (f) into the eukaryotic cells identified in step (d) to replace, in whole or in part, the endogenous immunoglobulin variable gene locus; and h) using a quantitative assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the eukaryotic cells of (g) to identify those eukaryotic cells in which the endogenous immunoglobulin variable region gene locus has been replaced, in whole or in part, with the homologous or orthologous human gene locus.

Another embodiment of the above method is a method wherein steps (e) through (h) are repeated until the endogenous immunoglobulin variable region gene locus is replaced in whole with an homologous or orthologous human gene locus.

Another embodiment of the method is one in which the immunoglobulin variable gene locus is a locus selected from the group consisting of a) a variable gene locus of the kappa light chain; b) a variable gene locus of the lambda light chain; and c) a variable gene locus of the heavy chain.

A preferred embodiment is a method wherein the quantitative assay comprises quantitative PCR, FISH, comparative genomic hybridization, isothermic DNA amplification, or quantitative hybridization to an immobilized probe, and in particular wherein the quantitative PCR comprises TAQMAN®. technology or quantitative PCR using molecular beacons.

Yet another preferred embodiment is a method of replacing, in whole or in part, in a mouse embryonic stem cell, an endogenous immunoglobulin variable region gene locus with its homologous or orthologous human gene locus comprising: a) obtaining a large cloned genomic fragment containing, in whole or in part, the homologous or orthologous human gene locus; b) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the large cloned genomic fragment of (a) to create a large targeting vector for use in the embryonic stem cells; c) introducing the large targeting vector of (b) into mouse embryonic stem cells to replace, in whole or in part, the endogenous immunoglobulin variable gene locus in the cells; and d) using a quantitative PCR assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the mouse embryonic stem cells of (d) to identify those mouse embryonic stem cells in which the endogenous variable gene locus has been replaced, in whole or in part, with the homologous or orthologous human gene locus.

In another embodiment, the method further comprises: e) obtaining a large cloned genomic fragment containing a part of the homologous or orthologous human gene locus that differs from the fragment of (a); f) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the cloned genomic fragment of (e) to create a large targeting vector for use in the embryonic stem cells; g) introducing the large targeting vector of (f) into the mouse embryonic stem cells identified in step (d) to replace, in whole or in part, the endogenous immunoglobulin variable gene locus; and h) using a quantitative assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the mouse embryonic stem cells of (g) to identify those mouse embryonic stem cells in which the endogenous immunoglobulin variable region gene locus has been replaced, in whole or in part, with the homologous or orthologous human gene locus.

Another preferred embodiment is a genetically modified immunoglobulin variable region gene locus produced by the methods described above; a genetically modified eukaryotic cell comprising a genetically modified immunoglobulin variable region gene locus produced by the methods described above; a non-human organism comprising a genetically modified immunoglobulin variable region gene locus produced by the methods described above; and a mouse embryonic stem cell containing a genetically modified immunoglobulin variable region gene locus produced by the methods described above.

Also preferred is an embryonic stem cell wherein the mouse heavy chain variable region locus is replaced, in whole or in part, with a human heavy chain variable gene locus; an embryonic stem cell of claim wherein the mouse kappa light chain variable region locus is replaced, in whole or in part, with a human kappa light chain variable region locus; an embryonic stem cell wherein the mouse lambda light chain variable region locus is replaced, in whole or in part, with a human lambda light chain variable region locus; and an embryonic stem cell wherein the heavy and light chain variable region gene loci are replaced, in whole, with their human homologs or orthologs.

Yet another preferred embodiment is an antibody comprising a human variable region encoded by the genetically modified variable gene locus of described above; an antibody further comprising a non-human constant region; and an antibody further comprising a human constant region.

Also preferred is a transgenic mouse having a genome comprising entirely human heavy and light chain variable region loci operably linked to entirely endogenous mouse constant region loci such that the mouse produces a serum containing an antibody comprising a human variable region and a mouse constant region in response to antigenic stimulation; a transgenic mouse having a genome comprising human heavy and/or light chain variable region loci operably linked to endogenous mouse constant region loci such that the mouse produces a serum containing an antibody comprising a human variable region and a mouse constant region in response to antigenic stimulation; a transgenic mouse containing an endogenous variable region locus that has been replaced with an homologous or orthologous human variable locus, such mouse being produced by a method comprising: a) obtaining one or more large cloned genomic fragments containing the entire homologous or orthologous human variable region locus; b) using bacterial homologous recombination to genetically modify the cloned genomic fragment(s) of (a) to create large targeting vector(s) for use in mouse embryonic stem cells; c) introducing the large targeting vector(s) of (b) into mouse embryonic stem cells to replace the entire endogenous variable region locus in the cells; and d) using a quantitative PCR assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in the mouse embryonic stem cells of (c) to identify those mouse embryonic stem cells in which the entire endogenous variable region locus has been replaced with the homologous or orthologous human variable region locus; e) introducing the mouse embryonic stem cell of (d) into a blastocyst; and f) introducing the blastocyst of (e) into a surrogate mother for gestation.

Still yet another preferred embodiment of the invention is a method of making a human antibody comprising: a) exposing the mouse described above to antigenic stimulation, such that the mouse produces an antibody against the antigen; b) isolating the DNA encoding the variable regions of the heavy and light chains of the antibody; c) operably linking the DNA encoding the variable regions of (b) to DNA encoding the human heavy and light chain constant regions in a cell capable of expressing active antibodies; d) growing the cell under such conditions as to express the human antibody; and e) recovering the antibody. In another preferred embodiment, the cell described above is a CHO cell. Also preferred is a method of wherein the DNA of step (b) described above is isolated from a hybridoma created from the spleen of the mouse exposed to antigenic stimulation in step (a) described above.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1: Schematic diagram of the generation of a typical LTVEC using bacterial homologous recombination. (hb1=homology box 1; hb2=homology box 2; RE=restriction enzyme site).

FIG. 2: Schematic diagram of donor fragment and LTVEC for mouse OCR10. (hb1=homology box 1; lacZ=β-galactosidase ORF; SV40 polyA=a DNA fragment derived from Simian Virus 40, containing a polyadenylation site and signal; PGKp=mouse phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) promoter; EM7=a bacterial promoter; neo=neomycin phosphotransferase; PGK polyA=3′ untranslated region derived from the PGK gene and containing a polyadenylation site and signal; hb2=homology box 2)

FIG. 3A-3D: Sequence of the mouse OCR10 cDNA (upper strand, SEQ ID NO:5; amino acid, SEQ ID NO:6), homology box 1 (hb1), homology box 2 (hb2), and TAQMAN® probes and primers used in a quantitative PCR assay to detect modification of allele (MOA) in ES cells targeted using the mOCR10 LTVEC. hb1: base pairs 1 to 211; hb2: base pairs 1586 to 1801; TAQMAN® probe and corresponding PCR primer set derived from mOCR10 exon 3: TAQMAN® probe: nucleotides 413 to 439—upper strand; Primer ex3-5′: nucleotides 390 to 410—upper strand; Primer ex3-3′: nucleotides 445 to 461—lower strand; TAQMAN® probe and corresponding PCR primer set derived from mOCR10 exon 4: TAQMAN® probe: nucleotides 608 to 639—upper strand; Primer ex4-5′: nucleotides 586 to 605—upper strand; Primer ex4-3′: nucleotides 642 to 662—lower strand.

FIG. 4A-4D: (SEQ ID NO:5-6) Schematic diagram of the two LTVECs constructed to replace the mouse VDJ region with human VDJ region. A: Large insert (BAC) clones spanning the entire VDJ region of the human heavy chain locus are isolated. B: In this example, large insert (BAC) clones are isolated from the ends of the mouse VDJ region as a source of homology arms which are used to direct integration via homologous recombination of the human VDJ sequences in a two step process. C-D: In the first step, LTVEC1 is constructed by bacterial homologous recombination in E. coli. LTVEC1 contains, in order: a large mouse homology arm derived from the region upstream from the mouse DJ region, but whose absolute endpoints are not important; a cassette encoding a selectable marker functional in ES cells (PGK-neomycinR); a loxP site; a large human insert spanning from several V gene segments through the entire DJ region; and a mouse homology arm containing the region immediately adjacent to, but not including, the mouse J segments. In the second step, LTVEC2 is constructed by bacterial homologous recombination in E. coli. LTVEC2 contains, in order: a large mouse homology arm containing the region adjacent to the most distal mouse V gene segment, but not containing any mouse V gene segments; a large insert containing a large number of distal human V gene segments; a mutant loxP site called lox511 in the orientation opposite to that of the wild type loxP sites in LTVEC2 and LTVEC1 (this site will not recombine with wild type loxP sites but will readily recombine with other lox511 sites); a wild type loxP site; a second selectable marker (PGK-hygromycinR); and a mouse homology arm derived from the V region, but whose absolute endpoints are not important.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

A “targeting vector” is a DNA construct that contains sequences “homologous” to endogenous chromosomal nucleic acid sequences flanking a desired genetic modification(s). The flanking homology sequences, referred to as “homology arms”, direct the targeting vector to a specific chromosomal location within the genome by virtue of the homology that exists between the homology arms and the corresponding endogenous sequence and introduce the desired genetic modification by a process referred to as “homologous recombination”.

“Homologous” means two or more nucleic acid sequences that are either identical or similar enough that they are able to hybridize to each other or undergo intermolecular exchange.

“Gene targeting” is the modification of an endogenous chromosomal locus by the insertion into, deletion of, or replacement of the endogenous sequence via homologous recombination using a targeting vector.

A “gene knockout” is a genetic modification resulting from the disruption of the genetic information encoded in a chromosomal locus. A “gene knockin” is a genetic modification resulting from the replacement of the genetic information encoded in a chromosomal locus with a different DNA sequence. A “knockout organism” is an organism in which a significant proportion of the organism's cells harbor a gene knockout. A “knockin organism” is an organism in which a significant proportion of the organism's cells harbor a gene knockin.

A “marker” or a “selectable marker” is a selection marker that allows for the isolation of rare transfected cells expressing the marker from the majority of treated cells in the population. Such marker's gene's include, but are not limited to, neomycin phosphotransferase and hygromycin B phosphotransferase, or fluorescing proteins such as GFP.

An “ES cell” is an embryonic stem cell. This cell is usually derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst-stage embryo. An “ES cell clone” is a subpopulation of cells derived from a single cell of the ES cell population following introduction of DNA and subsequent selection.

A “flanking DNA” is a segment of DNA that is collinear with and adjacent to a particular point of reference.

“LTVECs” are large targeting vectors for eukaryotic cells that are derived from fragments of cloned genomic DNA larger than those typically used by other approaches intended to perform homologous targeting in eukaryotic cells.

“Modification of allele” (MOA) refers to the modification of the exact DNA sequence of one allele of a gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci) in a genome. This modification of allele (MOA) includes, but is not limited to, deletions, substitutions, or insertions of as little as a single nucleotide or deletions of many kilobases spanning a gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci) of interest, as well as any and all possible modifications between these two extremes.

“Orthologous” sequence refers to a sequence from one species that is the functional equivalent of that sequence in another species.

General Description

Applicants have developed a novel, rapid, streamlined, and efficient method for creating and screening eukaryotic cells which contain modified endogenous genes or chromosomal loci. In these cells, the modification may be gene(s) knockouts, knockins, point mutations, or large genomic insertions or deletions or other modifications. These cells may be embryonic stem cells which are useful for creating knockout or knockin organisms and in particular, knockout or knockin mice, for the purpose of determining the function of the gene(s) that have been altered, deleted and/or inserted.

The novel methods described herein combine, for the first time: 1. Bacterial homologous recombination to precisely engineer a desired genetic modification within a large cloned genomic DNA fragment, thereby creating a large targeting vector for use in eukaryotic cells (LTVECs); 2. Direct introduction of these LTVECs into eukaryotic cells to modify the corresponding endogenous gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci) of interest in these cells; and 3. An analysis to determine the rare eukaryotic cells in which the targeted allele has been modified as desired, involving a quantitative assay for modification of allele (MOA) of the parental allele.

It should be emphasized that previous methods to detect successful homologous recombination in eukaryotic cells cannot be utilized in conjunction with the LTVECs of Applicants' invention because of the long homology arms present in the LTVECs. Utilizing a LTVEC to deliberately modify endogenous genes or chromosomal loci in eukaryotic cells via homologous recombination is made possible by the novel application of an assay to determine the rare eukaryotic cells in which the targeted allele has been modified as desired, such assay involving a quantitative assay for modification of allele (MOA) of a parental allele, by employing, for example, quantitative PCR or other suitable quantitative assays for MOA.

The ability to utilize targeting vectors with homology arms larger than those used in current methods is extremely valuable for the following reasons: 1. Targeting vectors are more rapidly and conveniently generated from available libraries containing large genomic inserts (e.g. BAC or PAC libraries) than targeting vectors made using previous technologies, in which the genomic inserts have to be extensively characterized and “trimmed” prior to use (explained in detail below). In addition, minimal sequence information needs to be known about the locus of interest, i.e. it is only necessary to know the approximately 80-100 nucleotides that are required to generate the homology boxes (described in detail below) and to generate probes that can be used in quantitative assays for MOA (described in detail below). 2. Larger modifications as well as modifications spanning larger genomic regions are more conveniently generated and in fewer steps than using previous technologies. For example, the method of the invention makes possible the precise modification of large loci that cannot be accommodated by traditional plasmid-based targeting vectors because of their size limitations. It also makes possible the modification of any given locus at multiple points (e.g. the introduction of specific mutations at different exons of a multi-exon gene) in one step, alleviating the need to engineer multiple targeting vectors and to perform multiple rounds of targeting and screening for homologous recombination in ES cells. 3. The use of long regions of homology (long homology arms) increase the targeting frequency of “hard to target” loci in eukaryotic cells, consistent with previous findings that targeting of homologous recombination in eukaryotic cells appears to be related to the total homology contained within the targeting vector. 4. The increased targeting frequency obtained using long homology arms apparently diminishes the benefit, if any, from using isogenic DNA in these targeting vectors. 5. The application of quantitative MOA assays for screening eukaryotic cells for homologous recombination not only empowers the use of LTVECs as targeting vectors (advantages outlined above) but also reduces the time for identifying correctly modified eukaryotic cells from the typical several days to a few hours. In addition, the application of quantitative MOA does not require the use of probes located outside the endogenous gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci) that is being modified, thus obviating the need to know the sequence flanking the modified gene(s) or locus (loci). This is a significant improvement in the way the screening has been performed in the past and makes it a much less labor-intensive and much more cost-effective approach to screening for homologous recombination events in eukaryotic cells.

Methods

Many of the techniques used to construct DNA vectors described herein are standard molecular biology techniques well known to the skilled artisan (see e.g., Sambrook, J., E. F. Fritsch And T. Maniatis. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, Vols 1, 2, and 3, 1989; Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Eds. Ausubel et al., Greene Publ. Assoc., Wiley Interscience, NY). All DNA sequencing is done by standard techniques using an ABI 373A DNA sequencer and Taq Dideoxy Terminator Cycle Sequencing Kit (Applied Biosystems, Inc., Foster City, Calif.).

Step 1. Obtain a Large Genomic DNA Clone Containing the Gene(s) or Chromosomal Locus (Loci) of Interest.

A gene(s) or locus (loci) of interest can be selected based on specific criteria, such as detailed structural or functional data, or it can be selected in the absence of such detailed information as potential genes or gene fragments become predicted through the efforts of the various genome sequencing projects. Importantly, it should be noted that it is not necessary to know the complete sequence and gene structure of a gene(s) of interest to apply the method of the subject invention to produce LTVECs. In fact, the only sequence information that is required is approximately 80-100 nucleotides so as to obtain the genomic clone of interest as well as to generate the homology boxes used in making the LTVEC (described in detail below) and to make probes for use in quantitative MOA assays.

Once a gene(s) or locus (loci) of interest has been selected, a large genomic clone(s) containing this gene(s) or locus (loci) is obtained. This clone(s) can be obtained in any one of several ways including, but not limited to, screening suitable DNA libraries (e.g. BAC, PAC, YAC, or cosmid) by standard hybridization or PCR techniques, or by any other methods familiar to the skilled artisan.

Step 2. Append Homology Boxes 1 and 2 to a Modification Cassette and Generation of LTVEC.

Homology boxes mark the sites of bacterial homologous recombination that are used to generate LTVECs from large cloned genomic fragments (FIG. 1). Homology boxes are short segments of DNA, generally double-stranded and at least 40 nucleotides in length, that are homologous to regions within the large cloned genomic fragment flanking the “region to be modified”. The homology boxes are appended to the modification cassette, so that following homologous recombination in bacteria, the modification cassette replaces the region to be modified (FIG. 1). The technique of creating a targeting vector using bacterial homologous recombination can be performed in a variety of systems (Yang et al. supra; Muyrers et al. supra; Angrand et al. supra; Narayanan et al. supra; Yu, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 97:5978-83, 2000). One example of a favored technology currently in use is ET cloning and variations of this technology (Yu et al. supra). ET refers to the recE (Hall and Kolodner, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 91:3205-9, 1994) and recT proteins (Kusano et al., Gene, 138:17-25, 1994) that carry out the homologous recombination reaction. RecE is an exonuclease that trims one strand of linear double-stranded DNA (essentially the donor DNA fragment described infra) 5′ to 3′, thus leaving behind a linear double-stranded fragment with a 3′ single-stranded overhang. This single-stranded overhang is coated by recT protein, which has single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) binding activity (Koval) and Matthews, Science, 277:1824-7, 1997). ET cloning is performed using E. coli that transiently express the E. coli gene products of recE and recT (Hall and Kolodner, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 91:3205-9, 1994; Clark et al., Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol, 49:453-62, 1984; Noirot and Kolodner, J Biol Chem, 273:12274-80, 1998; Thresher et al., J Mol Biol, 254:364-71, 1995; Kolodner et al., Mol Microbiol, 11:23-30, 1994; Hall et al., J Bacteriol, 175:277-87, 1993) and the bacteriophage lambda (λ) protein λgam (Murphy, J Bacteriol, 173:5808-21, 1991; Poteete et al., J Bacteriol, 170:2012-21, 1988). The kgam protein is required for protecting the donor DNA fragment from degradation by the recBC exonuclease system (Myers and Stahl, Annu Rev Genet, 28:49-70, 1994) and it is required for efficient ET-cloning in recBC⁺ hosts such as the frequently used E. coli strain DH10b.

The region to be modified and replaced using bacterial homologous recombination can range from zero nucleotides in length (creating an insertion into the original locus) to many tens of kilobases (creating a deletion and/or a replacement of the original locus). Depending on the modification cassette, the modification can result in the following: (a) deletion of coding sequences, gene segments, or regulatory elements; (b) alteration(s) of coding sequence, gene segments, or regulatory elements including substitutions, additions, and fusions (e.g. epitope tags or creation of bifunctional proteins such as those with GFP); (c) insertion of new coding regions, gene segments, or regulatory elements, such as those for selectable marker genes or reporter genes or putting new genes under endogenous transcriptional control; (d) creation of conditional alleles, e.g. by introduction of loxP sites flanking the region to be excised by Cre recombinase (Abremski and Hoess, J Biol Chem, 259:1509-14, 1984), or FRT sites flanking the region to be excised by Flp recombinase (Andrews et al., Cell, 40:795-803, 1985; Meyer-Leon et al., Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol, 49:797-804, 1984; Cox, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 80:4223-7, 1983); or (e) replacement of coding sequences or gene segments from one species with orthologous coding sequences from a different species, e.g. replacing a murine genetic locus with the orthologous human genetic locus to engineer a mouse where that particular locus has been ‘humanized’.

Any or all of these modifications can be incorporated into a LTVEC. A specific example in which an endogenous coding sequence is entirely deleted and simultaneously replaced with both a reporter gene as well as a selectable marker is provided below in Example 1, as are the advantages of the method of the invention as compared to previous technologies.

Step 3 (Optional). Verify that Each LTVEC has been Engineered Correctly.

Verify that each LTVEC has been engineered correctly by: a. Diagnostic PCR to verify the novel junctions created by the introduction of the donor fragment into the gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci) of interest. The PCR fragments thus obtained can be sequenced to further verify the novel junctions created by the introduction of the donor fragment into the gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci) of interest. b. Diagnostic restriction enzyme digestion to make sure that only the desired modifications have been introduced into the LTVEC during the bacterial homologous recombination process. c. Direct sequencing of the LTVEC, particularly the regions spanning the site of the modification to verify the novel junctions created by the introduction of the donor fragment into the gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci) of interest.

Step 4. Purification, Preparation, and Linearization of LTVEC DNA for Introduction into Eukaryotic Cells. a. Preparation of LTVEC DNA:

Prepare miniprep DNA (Sambrook et al. supra; Tillett and Neilan, Biotechniques, 24:568-70, 572, 1998; of the selected LTVEC and re-transform the miniprep LTVEC DNA into E. coli using electroporation (Sambrook et al. supra). This step is necessary to get rid of the plasmid encoding the recombinogenic proteins that are utilized for the bacterial homologous recombination step. It is useful to get rid of this plasmid (a) because it is a high copy number plasmid and may reduce the yields obtained in the large scale LTVEC preps; (b) to eliminate the possibility of inducing expression of the recombinogenic proteins; and (c) because it may obscure physical mapping of the LTVEC. Before introducing the LTVEC into eukaryotic cells, larger amounts of LTVEC DNA are prepared by standard methodology; Sambrook et al. supra; Tillett and Neilan, Biotechniques, 24:568-70, 572, 1998). However, this step can be bypassed if a bacterial homologous recombination method that utilizes a recombinogenic prophage is used, i.e. where the genes encoding the recombinogenic proteins are integrated into the bacterial chromosome (Yu, et al. supra), is used.

b. Linearizing the LTVEC DNA:

To prepare the LTVEC for introduction into eukaryotic cells, the LTVEC is preferably linearized in a manner that leaves the modified endogenous gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci) DNA flanked with long homology arms. This can be accomplished by linearizing the LTVEC, preferably in the vector backbone, with any suitable restriction enzyme that digests only rarely. Examples of suitable restriction enzymes include NotI, PacI, SfiI, SrfI, SwaI, FseI, etc. The choice of restriction enzyme may be determined experimentally (i.e. by testing several different candidate rare cutters) or, if the sequence of the LTVEC is known, by analyzing the sequence and choosing a suitable restriction enzyme based on the analysis. In situations where the LTVEC has a vector backbone containing rare sites such as CosN sites, then it can be cleaved with enzymes recognizing such sites, for example 2 terminase (Shizuya et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 89:8794-7, 1992; Becker and Gold, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 75:4199-203, 1978; Rackwitz et al., Gene, 40:259-66, 1985).

Step 5. Introduction of LTVEC into Eukaryotic Cells and Selection of Cells where Successful Introduction of the LTVEC has Taken Place.

LTVEC DNA can be introduced into eukaryotic cells using standard methodology, such as transfection mediated by calcium phosphate, lipids, or electroporation (Sambrook et al. supra). The cells where the LTVEC has been introduced successfully can be selected by exposure to selection agents, depending on the selectable marker gene that has been engineered into the LTVEC. For example, if the selectable marker is the neomycin phosphotransferase (neo) gene (Beck, et al., Gene, 19:327-36, 1982), then cells that have taken up the LTVEC can be selected in G418-containing media; cells that do not have the LTVEC will die whereas cells that have taken up the LTVEC will survive (Santerre, et al., Gene, 30:147-56, 1984). Other suitable selectable markers include any drug that has activity in eukaryotic cells, such as hygromycin B (Santerre, et al., Gene, 30:147-56, 1984; Bernard, et al., Exp Cell Res, 158:237-43, 1985; Giordano and McAllister, Gene, 88:285-8, 1990), Blasticidin S (Izumi, et al., Exp Cell Res, 197:229-33, 1991), and other which are familiar to those skilled in the art.

Step 6.

Screen for homologous recombination events in eukaryotic cells using quantitative assay for modification of allele (MOA). Eukaryotic cells that have been successfully modified by targeting the LTVEC into the locus of interest can be identified using a variety of approaches that can detect modification of allele within the locus of interest and that do not depend on assays spanning the entire homology arm or arms. Such approaches can include but are not limited to: (a) quantitative PCR using TAQMAN® (Lie and Petropoulos, Curr Opin Biotechnol, 9:43-8, 1998); (b) quantitative MOA assay using molecular beacons (Tan, et al., Chemistry, 6:1107-11, 2000); (c) fluorescence in situ hybridization FISH (Laan, et al., Hum Genet, 96:275-80, 1995) or comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) (Forozan, et al., Trends Genet, 13:405-9, 1997; Thompson and Gray, J Cell Biochem Suppl, 13943, 1993; Houldsworth and Chaganti, Am J Pathol, 145:1253-60, 1994); (d) isothermic DNA amplification (Lizardi et al., Nat Genet, 19:225-32, 1998; Mitra and Church, Nucleic Acids Res, 27:e34, 1999); and (e) quantitative hybridization to an immobilized probe(s) (Southern, J. Mol. Biol. 98: 503, 1975; Kafatos et al., Nucleic Acids Res 7(6):1541-52, 1979).

Applicants provide herein an example in which TAQMAN® quantitative PCR is used to screen for successfully targeted eukaryotic cells. For example, TAQMAN® is used to identify eukaryotic cells which have undergone homologous recombination wherein a portion of one of two endogenous alleles in a diploid genome has been replaced by another sequence. In contrast to traditional methods, in which a difference in restriction fragment length spanning the entire homology arm or arms indicates the modification of one of two alleles, the quantitative TAQMAN® method will detect the modification of one allele by measuring the reduction in copy number (by half) of the unmodified allele. Specifically, the probe detects the unmodified allele and not the modified allele. Therefore, the method is independent of the exact nature of the modification and not limited to the sequence replacement described in this example. TAQMAN® is used to quantify the number of copies of a DNA template in a genomic DNA sample, especially by comparison to a reference gene (Lie and Petropoulos, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 9:43-8, 1998). The reference gene is quantitated in the same genomic DNA as the target gene(s) or locus (loci). Therefore, two TAQMAN® amplifications (each with its respective probe) are performed. One TAQMAN® probe determines the “Ct” (Threshold Cycle) of the reference gene, while the other probe determines the Ct of the region of the targeted gene(s) or locus (loci) which is replaced by successful targeting. The Ct is a quantity that reflects the amount of starting DNA for each of the TAQMAN® probes, i.e. a less abundant sequence requires more cycles of PCR to reach the threshold cycle. Decreasing by half the number of copies of the template sequence for a TAQMAN® reaction will result in an increase of about one Ct unit. TAQMAN® reactions in cells where one allele of the target gene(s) or locus (loci) has been replaced by homologous recombination will result in an increase of one Ct for the target TAQMAN® reaction without an increase in the Ct for the reference gene when compared to DNA from non-targeted cells. This allows for ready detection of the modification of one allele of the gene(s) of interest in eukaryotic cells using LTVECs.

As stated above, modification of allele (MOA) screening is the use of any method that detects the modification of one allele to identify cells which have undergone homologous recombination. It is not a requirement that the targeted alleles be identical (homologous) to each other, and in fact, they may contain polymorphisms, as is the case in progeny resulting from crossing two different strains of mice. In addition, one special situation that is also covered by MOA screening is targeting of genes which are normally present as a single copy in cells, such as some of the located on the sex chromosomes and in particular, on the Y chromosome. In this case, methods that will detect the modification of the single targeted allele, such as quantitative PCR, Southern blottings, etc., can be used to detect the targeting event. It is clear that the method of the invention can be used to generate modified eukaryotic cells even when alleles are polymorphic or when they are present in a single copy in the targeted cells.

Step 8.

Uses of genetically modified eukaryotic cells. (a) The genetically modified eukaryotic cells generated by the methods described in steps 1 through 7 can be employed in any in vitro or in vivo assay, where changing the phenotype of the cell is desirable. (b) The genetically modified eukaryotic cell generated by the methods described in steps 1 through 7 can also be used to generate an organism carrying the genetic modification. The genetically modified organisms can be generated by several different techniques including but not limited to: 1. Modified embryonic stem (ES) cells such as the frequently used rat and mouse ES cells. ES cells can be used to create genetically modified rats or mice by standard blastocyst injection technology or aggregation techniques (Robertson, Practical Approach Series, 254, 1987; Wood, et al., Nature, 365:87-9, 1993; Joyner supra), tetraploid blastocyst injection (Wang, et al., Mech Dev, 62:137-45, 1997), or nuclear transfer and cloning (Wakayama, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 96:14984-9, 1999). ES cells derived from other organisms such as rabbits (Wang, et al., Mech Dev, 62:137-45, 1997; Schoonjans, et al., Mol Reprod Dev, 45:439-43, 1996) or chickens (Pain, et al., Development, 122:2339-48, 1996) or other species should also be amenable to genetic modification(s) using the methods of the invention. 2. Modified protoplasts can be used to generate genetically modified plants (for example see U.S. Pat. No. 5,350,689 “Zea mays plants and transgenic Zea mays plants regenerated from protoplasts or protoplast-derived cells”, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,189 “Regeneration of plants from cultured guard cell protoplasts” and references therein). 3. Nuclear transfer from modified eukaryotic cells to oocytes to generate cloned organisms with modified allele (Wakayama, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 96:14984-9, 1999; Baguisi, et al., Nat Biotechnol, 17:456-61, 1999; Wilmut, et al., Reprod Fertil Dev, 10:639-43, 1998; Wilmut, et al., Nature, 385:810-3, 1997; Wakayama, et al., Nat Genet, 24:108-9, 2000; Wakayama, et al., Nature, 394:369-74, 1998; Rideout, et al., Nat Genet, 24:109-10, 2000; Campbell, et al., Nature, 380:64-6, 1996). 4. Cell-fusion to transfer the modified allele to another cell, including transfer of engineered chromosome(s), and uses of such cell(s) to generate organisms carrying the modified allele or engineered chromosome(s) (Kuroiwa, et al., Nat Biotechnol, 18:1086-1090, 2000). 5. The method of the invention are also amenable to any other approaches that have been used or yet to be discovered.

While many of the techniques used in practicing the individual steps of the methods of the invention are familiar to the skilled artisan, Applicants contend that the novelty of the method of the invention lies in the unique combination of those steps and techniques coupled with the never-before-described method of introducing a LTVEC directly into eukaryotic cells to modify a chromosomal locus, and the use of quantitative MOA assays to identify eukaryotic cells which have been appropriately modified. This novel combination represents a significant improvement over previous technologies for creating organisms possessing modifications of endogenous genes or chromosomal loci.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Engineering Mouse ES Cells Bearing a Deletion of the OCR10Gene

a. Selection of a Large Genomic DNA Clone Containing mOCR10.

A Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) clone carrying a large genomic DNA fragment that contained the coding sequence of the mouse OCR10 (mOCR10) gene was obtained by screening an arrayed mouse genomic DNA BAC library (Incyte Genomics) using PCR. The primers employed to screen this library were derived from the mOCR10 gene cDNA sequence. Two primer pairs where used: (a) OCR10.RAA (SEQ ID NO:1) and OCR10.PVIrc (SEQ ID NO:2) which amplifies a 102 by DNA; and (b) OCR10.TDY (SEQ ID NO:3)) and OCR10.QETrc (SEQ ID NO:4)) which amplifies a 1500 by DNA. This mOCR10BAC contained approximately 180 kb of genomic DNA including the complete mOCR10 coding sequence. This BAC clone was used to generate an LTVEC which was subsequently used to delete a portion of the coding region of mOCR10 while simultaneously introducing a reporter gene whose initiation codon precisely replaced the initiation codon of OCR10, as well as insertion of a selectable marker gene useful for selection both in E. coli and mammalian cells following the reporter gene (FIG. 2). The reporter gene (LacZ), encodes the E. coli β-galactosidase enzyme. Because of the position of insertion of LacZ (its initiating codon is at the same position as the initiation codon of mOCR10) the expression of lacZ should mimic that of mOCR10, as has been observed in other examples where similar replacements with LacZ were performed using previous technologies (see “Gene trap strategies in ES cells”, by W Wurst and A. Gossler, in Joyner supra). The LacZ gene allows for a simple and standard enzymatic assay to be performed that can reveal its expression patterns in situ, thus providing a surrogate assay that reflects the normal expression patterns of the replaced gene(s) or chromosomal locus (loci).

b. Construction of Donor Fragment and Generation of LTVEC.

The modification cassette used in the construction of the mOCR10 LTVEC is the lacZ-SV40 polyA-PGKp-EM7-neo-PGK polyA cassette wherein lacZ is a marker gene as described above, SV40 polyA is a fragment derived from Simian Virus 40 (Subramanian, et al., Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol, 19:157-64, 1976; Thimmappaya, et al., J Biol Chem, 253:1613-8, 1978; Dhar, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 71:371-5, 1974; Reddy, et al., Science, 200:494-502, 1978) and containing a polyadenylation site and signal (Subramanian, et al., Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol, 19:157-64, 1976; Thimmappaya, et al., J Biol Chem, 253:1613-8, 1978; Dhar, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 71:371-5, 1974; Reddy, et al., Science, 200:494-502, 1978), PGKp is the mouse phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) promoter (Adra, et al., Gene, 60:65-74, 1987) (which has been used extensively to drive expression of drug resistance genes in mammalian cells), EM7 is a strong bacterial promoter that has the advantage of allowing for positive selection in bacteria of the completed LTVEC construct by driving expression of the neomycin phosphotransferase (neo) gene, neo is a selectable marker that confers Kanamycin resistance in prokaryotic cells and G418 resistance in eukaryotic cells (Beck, et al., Gene, 19:327-36, 1982), and PGK polyA is a 3′ untranslated region derived from the PGK gene and containing a polyadenylation site and signal (Boer, et al., Biochem Genet, 28:299-308, 1990).

To construct the mOCR10 LTVEC, first a donor fragment was generated consisting of a mOCR10 homology box 1 (hb1) attached upstream from the LacZ gene in the modification cassette and a mOCR10 homology box 2 (hb2) attached downstream of the neo-PGK polyA sequence in the modification cassette (FIG. 2), using standard recombinant genetic engineering technology. Homology box 1 (hb1) consists of 211 by of untranslated sequence immediately upstream of the initiating methionine of the mOCR10 open reading frame (mOCR10ORF) (FIG. 3A-3D). Homology box 2 (hb2) consists of last 216 by of the mOCR10ORF, ending at the stop codon (FIG. 3A-3D).

Subsequently, using bacterial homologous recombination (Zhang, et al. supra; Angrand, et al., supra; Muyrers, et al. supra; Narayanan et al. supra; Yu et al. supra), this donor fragment was used to precisely replace the mOCR10 coding region (from initiation methionine to stop codon) with the insertion cassette, resulting in construction of the mOCR10 LTVEC (FIG. 2). Thus, in this mOCR10 LTVEC, the mOCR10 coding sequence was replaced by the insertion cassette creating an approximately 20 kb deletion in the mOCR10 locus while leaving approximately 130 kb of upstream homology (upstream homology arm) and 32 kb of downstream homology (downstream homology arm).

It is important to note that LTVECs can be more rapidly and conveniently generated from available BAC libraries than targeting vectors made using previous technologies because only a single bacterial homologous recombination step is required and the only sequence information required is that needed to generate the homology boxes. In contrast, previous approaches for generating targeting vectors using bacterial homologous recombination require that large targeting vectors be “trimmed” prior to their introduction in ES cells (Hill et al., Genomics, 64:111-3, 2000). This trimming is necessary because of the need to generate homology arms short enough to accommodate the screening methods utilized by previous approaches. One major disadvantage of the method of Hill et al. is that two additional homologous recombination steps are required simply for trimming (one to trim the region upstream of the modified locus and one to trim the region downstream of the modified locus). To do this, substantially more sequence information is needed, including sequence information spanning the sites of trimming.

In addition, another obvious advantage, illustrated by the above example, is that a very large deletion spanning the mOCR10 gene (approximately 20 kb) can be easily generated in a single step. In contrast, using previous technologies, to accomplish the same task may require several steps and may involve marking the regions upstream and downstream of the coding sequences with loxP sites in order to use the Cre recombinase to remove the sequence flanked by these sites after introduction of the modified locus in eukaryotic cells. This may be unattainable in one step, and thus may require the construction of two targeting vectors using different selection markers and two sequential targeting events in ES cells, one to introduce the loxP site at the region upstream of the coding sequence and another to introduce the loxP site at the region downstream of the coding sequence. It should be further noted that the creation of large deletions often occurs with low efficiency using the previous targeting technologies in eukaryotic cells, because the frequency of achieving homologous recombination may be low when using targeting vectors containing large deletion flanked by relatively short homology arms. The high efficiency obtained using the method of the invention (see below) is due to the very long homology arms present in the LTVEC that increase the rate of homologous recombination in eukaryotic cells.

c. Verification, Preparation, and Introduction of mOCR10 LTVEC DNA into ES Cells.

The sequence surrounding the junction of the insertion cassette and the homology sequence was verified by DNA sequencing. The size of the mOCR10 LTVEC was verified by restriction analysis followed by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) (Cantor, et al., Annu Rev Biophys Biophys Chem, 17:287-304, 1988; Schwartz and Cantor, Cell, 37:67-75, 1984). A standard large-scale plasmid preparation of the mOCR10 LTVEC was done, the plasmid DNA was digested with the restriction enzyme NotI, which cuts in the vector backbone of the mOCR10 LTVEC, to generate linear DNA. Subsequently the linearized DNA was introduced into mouse ES cells by electroporation (Robertson, Practical Approach Series, 254, 1987; Joyner supra; Sambrook, et al. supra). ES cells successfully transfected with the mOCR10 LTVEC were selected for in G418-containing media using standard selection methods.

d. Identification of Targeted ES Cells Clones Using a Quantitative Modification of Allele (MOA) Assay.

To identify ES cells in which one of the two endogenous mOCR10 genes had been replaced by the modification cassette sequence, DNA from individual ES cell clones was analyzed by quantitative PCR using standard TAQMAN® methodology as described (Applied Biosystems, TAQMAN® Universal PCR Master Mix, catalog number P/N 4304437). The primers and TAQMAN® probes used are as described in FIG. 3A-3D (SEQ ID NO:5-6). A total of 69 independent ES cells clones where screened and 3 were identified as positive, i.e. as clones in which one of the endogenous mOCR10 coding sequence had been replaced by the modification cassette described above.

Several advantages of the MOA approach are apparent: (i) It does not require the use of a probe outside the locus being modified, thus obviating the need to know the sequence flanking the modified locus. (ii) It requires very little time to perform compared to conventional Southern blot methodology which has been the previous method of choice, thus reducing the time for identifying correctly modified cells from the typical several days to just a few hours. This is a significant improvement in the way screening has been performed in the past and makes it a much less labor-intensive and more cost-effective approach to screening for homologous recombination events in eukaryotic cells. Yet another advantage of the method of the invention is that it is also superior to previous technologies because of its ability to target difficult loci. Using previous technologies, it has been shown that for certain loci the frequency of successful targeting may by as low as 1 in 2000 integration events, perhaps even lower. Using the method of the invention, Applicants have demonstrated that such difficult loci can be targeted much more efficiently using LTVECs that contain long homology arms (i.e. greater than those allowed by previous technologies). As the non-limiting example described above demonstrates, the Applicants have targeted the OCR10 locus, a locus that has previously proven recalcitrant to targeting using conventional technology. Using the method of the invention, Applicants have shown that they have obtained successful targeting in 3 out of 69 ES cells clones in which the mOCR10 LTVEC (containing more than 160 kb of homology arms, and introducing a 20 kb deletion) had integrated, whereas using previous technology for ES cell targeting using a plasmid-based vector with homology arms shorter than 10-20 kb while also introducing a deletion of less than 15 kb, no targeted events were identified among more than 600 integrants of the vector. These data clearly demonstrate the superiority of the method of the invention over previous technologies.

Example 2

Increased Targeting Frequency and Abrogation of the Need to Use Isogenic DNA when LTVECs are Used as the Targeting Vectors

As noted above, the increased targeting frequency obtained using long homology arms should diminish the benefit, if any, derived from using genomic DNA in constructing LTVECs that is isogenic with (i.e. identical in sequence to) the DNA of the eukaryotic cell being targeted. To test this hypothesis, Applicants have constructed numerous LTVECs using genomic DNA derived from the same mouse substrain as the eukaryotic cell to be targeted (presumably isogenic), and numerous other LTVECs using genomic DNA derived from mouse substrains differing from that of the eukaryotic cell to be targeted (presumably non-isogenic). The two sets of LTVECs exhibited similar targeting frequencies, ranging from 1-13%, indicating that the rate of successful targeting using LTVECs does not depend on isogenicity.

The approach of creating LTVECs and directly using them as targeting vectors combined with MOA screening for homologous recombination events in ES cells creates a novel method for engineering genetically modified loci that is rapid, inexpensive and represents a significant improvement over the tedious, time-consuming methods previously in use. It thus opens the possibility of a rapid large scale in vivo functional genomics analysis of essentially any and all genes in an organism's genome in a fraction of the time and cost necessitated by previous methodologies.

Example 3 Use of LTVECs to Produce Chimeric and Human Antibodies

a. Introduction.

The rearrangement of variable region genes during the initial development of B cells is the primary mechanism whereby the immune system produces antibodies capable of recognizing the huge number of antigens that it may encounter. Essentially, through DNA rearrangements during B cell development, a huge repertoire of variable (V) region sequences are assembled which are subsequently joined to a constant (C) region to produce complete heavy and light chains which assemble to form an antibody. After functional antibodies have been assembled, somatic hypermutation which occurs in the secondary lymphoid organs, introduces further diversity which enables the organism to select and optimize the affinity of the antibody.

The production of antibodies to various antigens in non-human species initially provided great promise for the large scale production of antibodies that could be used as human therapeutics. Species differences, however, leads to the production of antibodies by humans which inactivate the foreign antibodies and cause allergic reactions. Attempts were subsequently made to “humanize” the antibodies, thus making them less likely to be recognized as foreign in humans. Initially, this process involved combining the antigen binding portions of antibodies derived from mice with the constant region of human antibodies, thereby creating recombinant antibodies that were less immunogenic in humans. A second approach which was developed was phage display, whereby human V regions are cloned into a phage display library and regions with the appropriate binding characteristics are joined to human constant regions to create human antibodies. This technology is limited, however, by the lack of antibody development and affinity maturation which naturally occurs in B cells.

More recently, endogenous genes have been knocked out of mice, and the genes replaced with their human counterparts to produce entirely human antibodies. Unfortunately, the use of these constructs has highlighted the importance of an endogenous constant region in the development and optimization of antibodies in B cells. Human antibodies produced by transgenic mice with entirely human constructs have reduced affinity as compared to their mouse counterparts. Accordingly, the much acclaimed methods of producing humanized antibodies in mice and other organisms, wherein endogenous variable and constant regions of the mice are knocked out and replaced with their human counterparts, has not resulted in optimal antibodies.

The use of chimeric antibodies, which utilize human variable regions with mouse constant regions through B cell maturation, followed by subsequent engineering of the antibodies to replace the mouse constant regions with their human counterparts, has been suggested (U.S. Pat. No. 5,770,429). However, the only methodology that has existed to date for making such chimeras has been trans-switching, wherein the formation of the chimeras is only a rare event which occurs only in heavy chains. Heretofore, there has been no mechanism to produce, in transgenic animals, large scale replacement of the entire variable gene encoding segments with human genes, thereby producing chimeras in both the heavy and light chains. Utilizing Applicants' technology, as disclosed herein, chimeric antibodies are generated which can then be altered, through standard technology, to create high affinity human antibodies.

b. Brief Description.

A transgenic mouse is created that produces hybrid antibodies containing human variable regions and mouse constant regions. This is accomplished by a direct, in situ replacement of the mouse variable region genes with their human counterparts. The resultant hybrid immunoglobulin loci will undergo the natural process of rearrangements during B-cell development to produce the hybrid antibodies.

Subsequently, fully-human antibodies are made by replacing the mouse constant regions with the desired human counterparts. This approach will give rise to therapeutic antibodies much more efficiently than previous methods, e.g. the “humanization” of mouse monoclonal antibodies or the generation of fully human antibodies in HUMAB™ mice. Further, this method will succeed in producing therapeutic antibodies for many antigens for which previous methods have failed. This mouse will create antibodies that are human variable region-mouse constant region, which will have the following benefits over the previously available HUMAB™ mice that produce totally human antibodies. Antibodies generated by the new mouse will retain murine Fc regions which will interact more efficiently with the other components of the mouse B cell receptor complex, including the signaling components required for appropriate B cell differentiation (such as Iga and Igb). Additionally, the murine Fc regions will be more specific than human Fc regions in their interactions with Fc receptors on mouse cells, complement molecules, etc. These interactions are important for a strong and specific immune response, for the proliferation and maturation of B cells, and for the affinity maturation of antibodies.

Because there is a direct substitution of the human V-D-J/V-J regions for the equivalent regions of the mouse loci all of the sequences necessary for proper transcription, recombination, and/or class switching will remain intact. For example, the murine immunoglobulin heavy chain intronic enhancer, Em, has been shown to be critical for V-D-J recombination as well as heavy chain gene expression during the early stages of B cell development (Ronai et al. Mol Cell Biol 19:7031-7040 (1999)], whereas the immunoglobulin heavy chain 3′ enhancer region appears to be critical for class switching (Pan et al. Eur J Immunol 30:1019-1029 (2000)) as well as heavy chain gene expression at later stages of B cell differentiation (Ong, et al. J Immunol 160:4896-4903 (1998)). Given these various, yet crucial, functions of the transcriptional control elements, it is desirable to maintain these sequences intact.

The required recombination events which occur at the immunoglobulin loci during the normal course of B cell differentiation may increase the frequency of aberrant, non-productive immunoglobulin rearrangements when these loci are inserted at improper chromosomal locations, or in multiple copies, as in currently available mice. With reductions in productive immunoglobulin rearrangement and, therefore, appropriate signaling at specific steps of B cell development the aberrant cells are eliminated. Reductions of B cell numbers at early stages of development significantly decreases the final overall B cell population and greatly limits the immune responses of the mice. Since there will be only one, chimeric, heavy or light chain locus (as opposed to mutated immunoglobulin loci and with human transgenic loci integrated at distinct chromosomal locations for heavy and light chains in the currently available mice) there should be no trans-splicing or trans-rearrangements of the loci which could result in non-productive rearrangements or therapeutically irrelevant chimeric antibodies (Willers et al. Immunobiology 200:150-164 (2000); Fujieda et al. J. Immunol. 157:3450-3459 (1996)).

The substitutions of the human V-D-J or V-J regions into the genuine murine chromosomal immunoglobulin loci should be substantially more stable, with increased transmission rates to progeny and decreased mosaicism of B cell genotypes compared with the currently available mice (Tomizuka et al Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 97:722-727 (2000)). Furthermore, introduction of the human variable regions at the genuine murine loci in vivo will maintain the appropriate global regulation of chromatin accessibility previously shown to be important for appropriately timed recombination events (Haines et al. Eur J Immunol 28:4228-4235 (1998)).

Approximately ⅓ of human antibodies contain lambda light chains, as compared to mice in which only 1/20 of murine antibodies contain lambda light chains. Therefore, replacing murine lambda light chain V-J sequences with lambda light chain V-J sequences derived from the human locus will serve to increase the repertoire of antibodies as well as more closely match the genuine human immune response, thus increasing the likelihood of obtaining therapeutically useful antibodies.

An additional benefit of integrating the human sequences into the genuine murine immunoglobulin loci is that no novel integration sites are introduced which might give rise to mutagenic disruptions at the insertion site and preclude the isolation of viable homozygous mice. This will greatly simplify the production and maintenance of a breeding mouse colony.

c. Materials and Methods:

Precise replacement of the mouse heavy chain locus variable region (VDJ) with its human counterpart is exemplified using a combination of homologous and site-specific recombination in the following example, which utilizes a two step process. One skilled in the art will recognize that replacement of the mouse locus with the homologous or orthologous human locus may be accomplished in one or more steps. Accordingly, the invention contemplates replacement of the murine locus, in whole or in part, with each integration via homologous recombination.

Large insert (BAC) clones spanning the entire VDJ region of the human heavy chain locus are isolated (FIG. 4A). The sequence of this entire region is available in the following Gen Bank files (AB019437, AB019438, AB019439, AB019440, AB019441, X97051 and X54713). In this example, large insert (BAC) clones are isolated from the ends of the mouse VDJ region as a source of homology arms (FIG. 4B) which are used to direct integration via homologous recombination of the human VDJ sequences in a two step process.

In the first step, LTVEC1 (FIG. 4D) is constructed by bacterial homologous recombination in E. coli. LTVEC1 contains, in order: a large mouse homology arm derived from the region upstream from the mouse DJ region, but whose absolute endpoints are not important; a cassette encoding a selectable marker functional in ES cells (PGK-neomycinR); a loxP site; a large human insert spanning from several V gene segments through the entire DJ region; and a mouse homology arm containing the region immediately adjacent to, but not including, the mouse J segments. Mouse ES cells will be transformed by standard techniques, for example, electroporation, with linearized LTVEC1, and neomycin resistant colonies will be screened for correct targeting using a MOA assay. These targeted ES cells can give rise to mice that produce antibodies with hybrid heavy chains. However, it will be preferable to proceed with subsequent steps that will eliminate the remainder of the mouse variable segments.

In the second step, LTVEC2 (FIG. 4C) is constructed by bacterial homologous recombination in E. coli. LTVEC2 contains, in order: a large mouse homology arm containing the region adjacent to the most distal mouse V gene segment, but not containing any mouse V gene segments; a large insert containing a large number of distal human V gene segments; a mutant loxP site called lox511 (Hoess et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 14:2287-2300 (1986)), in the orientation opposite to that of the wild type loxP sites in LTVEC2 and LTVEC1 (this site will not recombine with wild type loxP sites but will readily recombine with other lox511 sites); a wild type loxP site; a second selectable marker (PGK-hygromycinR); and a mouse homology arm derived from the V region, but whose absolute endpoints are not important. Mouse ES cells that were correctly targeted with LTVEC1 will then be transformed by standard techniques with linearized LTVEC2, and hygromycin resistant colonies will be screened for correct targeting using a MOA assay. Correctly targeted ES cells resulting from this transformation will hereafter be referred to as “double targeted ES cells”.

Subsequent transient expression of CRE recombinase in the double targeted ES cells will result in deletion of the remainder of the mouse V region. Alternatively, the double targeted ES cells can be injected into host blastocysts for the production of chimeric mice. Breeding of the resultant chimeric mice with mice expressing CRE recombinase early in development will result in deletion of the remainder of the mouse V region in the progeny F1. This later alternative increases the likelihood that the hybrid heavy chain locus will be passed through the germline because it involves culturing the ES cells for fewer generations.

The inclusion of lox511 in LTVEC2 will allow for the insertion of additional human V gene segments into the hybrid locus. One approach would be to use bacterial homologous recombination to flank a large genomic DNA clone containing many additional human V gene segments with lox511 and loxP sites. Co-transformation of such a modified large genomic DNA clone into double targeted ES cells with a plasmid that transiently expresses CRE recombinase will result in the introduction of the additional V gene segments by cassette exchange (Bethke et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 25:2828-2834 (1997)).

A second approach to the incorporation of additional V gene segments is to independently target a large genomic DNA clone containing many additional human V gene segments into the mouse locus using, for instance, the same mouse homology arms included in LTVEC2. In this case, the additional human V gene segments would be flanked by lox511 and loxP sites, and the targeted ES cells would be used to create a mouse. The mice derived from double targeted ES cells and the mice derived from the ES cells containing the additional V gene segments would be bred with a third mouse that directs expression of CRE recombinase during meiosis. The close proximity of the two recombinant loci during meiotic pairing would result in a high frequency of CRE induced inter-chromosomal recombination as has been seen in other systems (Herault et al. Nature Genetics 20: 381-384 (1998)).

The final steps in creating the human variable/mouse constant monoclonal antibody producing-mouse will be performing the equivalent variable region substitutions on the lambda and kappa light chain loci and breeding all three hybrid loci to homozygocity together in the same mouse. The resultant transgenic mouse will have a genome comprising entirely human heavy and light chain variable gene loci operably linked to entirely endogenous mouse constant region such that the mouse produces a serum containing an antibody comprising a human variable region and a mouse constant region in response to antigenic stimulation. Such a mouse may then be used as a source of DNA encoding the variable regions of human antibodies. Using standard recombinant technology, DNA encoding the variable regions of the heavy and light chains of the antibody is operably linked to DNA encoding the human heavy and light chain constant regions in cells, such as a CHO cells, which are capable of expressing active antibodies. The cells are grown under the appropriate conditions to express the fully human antibodies, which are then recovered. Variable region encoding sequences may be isolated, for example, by PCR amplification or cDNA cloning. In a preferred embodiment, hybridomas made from transgenic mice comprising some or all of the human variable region immunoglobulin loci (Kohler et al. Eur. J. Immunol., 6:511-519 (1976) are used as a source of DNA encoding the human variable regions. 

We claim:
 1. A method of producing an antibody having a human immunoglobulin variable region, the method comprising: exposing a genetically modified mouse to an antigen, the mouse comprising in its germline human unrearranged immunoglobulin variable region gene segments inserted at an endogenous mouse immunoglobulin locus, wherein the mouse produces an antibody specific for the antigen, the antibody having a variable region encoded by rearranged human variable region gene segments generated through rearrangement of the unrearranged human variable region gene segments; and culturing a cell comprising DNA encoding the variable region of the antibody to produce the antibody having a human immunoglobulin variable region.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the human unrearranged immunoglobulin variable region gene segments are heavy chain gene segments, and the mouse immunoglobulin locus is a heavy chain locus.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the human unrearranged immunoglobulin variable region gene segments are light chain gene segments and the mouse immunoglobulin locus is a light chain locus.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the unrearranged immunoglobulin variable gene segments are contained on a human genomic DNA fragment larger than 20 kb.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the heavy chain gene segments are linked to a mouse constant region gene in the heavy chain locus.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the mouse does not comprise a human immunoglobulin heavy chain constant region gene.
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the mouse constant region gene consists of a mouse Fc region.
 8. The method of claim 2, wherein the human unrearranged immunoglobulin variable region gene segments consist of V segments, D segments and J segments.
 9. The method of claim 2, wherein the mouse further comprises in its germline human unrearranged immunoglobulin light chain variable region gene segments.
 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of making a hybridoma from the genetically modified mouse, the hybridoma comprising DNA encoding the antibody.
 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising the step of operably linking in a cell DNA encoding the human immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region of the antibody to DNA encoding a human immunoglobulin heavy chain constant region.
 12. The method of claim 11, further comprising the step of growing the cell under conditions such that the cell expresses an antibody having a heavy chain comprising the human heavy chain variable region and the human heavy chain constant region.
 13. The method of claim 9, wherein the mouse produces an antibody having: a human heavy chain immunoglobulin variable region encoded by rearranged human heavy chain immunoglobulin variable region gene segments generated through the rearrangement of the unrearranged human immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region gene segments; and an immunoglobulin light chain variable region encoded by rearranged human immunoglobulin light chain variable region gene segments generated through the rearrangement of the unrearranged human immunoglobulin light chain variable region gene segments.
 14. The method of claim 13, further comprising the step of making a hybridoma from the genetically modified mouse, the hybridoma comprising DNA encoding the antibody.
 15. The method of claim 14, further comprising the step of operably linking in a cell DNA encoding the human heavy chain variable region of the antibody to DNA encoding a human heavy chain constant region.
 16. The method of claim 15, further comprising the step of operably linking in the cell DNA encoding the human light chain variable region of the antibody to DNA encoding a human light chain constant region.
 17. The method of claim 16, further comprising the step of growing the cell under conditions such that the cell expresses an antibody having: a heavy chain comprising the human heavy chain variable region and the human heavy chain constant region; and a light chain comprising the human light chain variable region and the human light chain constant region.
 18. A method of generating a human immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region DNA sequence, the method comprising: a) exposing a genetically modified mouse to an antigen, the mouse comprising in its germline at an endogenous heavy chain immunoglobulin locus human unrearranged heavy chain variable region gene segments linked DNA encoding a mouse heavy chain constant region, such that the genetically modified mouse produces an antibody to the antigen, wherein the antibody has a human heavy chain variable region and a mouse heavy chain constant region; b) isolating DNA encoding the human heavy chain variable region of the antibody.
 19. The method of claim 18, further comprising the step of making a hybridoma from the genetically modified mouse after step a), the hybridoma comprising DNA encoding the human heavy chain variable region of the antibody.
 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the human heavy chain variable region gene segments are contained on a human genomic DNA fragment larger than 20 kb.
 21. The method of claim 18, wherein the mouse heavy chain constant region gene consists of a mouse Fc region.
 22. The method of claim 18, wherein the human unrearranged variable region gene segments consist of V segments, D segments and J segments.
 23. The method of claim 18, wherein the genetically modified mouse further comprises in its germline a light chain immunoglobulin locus comprising human unrearranged light chain variable region gene segments.
 24. The method of claim 18, wherein the DNA encoding the human heavy chain variable region of the antibody is isolated in step c) by PCR amplification or cDNA cloning.
 25. A method of producing an antibody having a human variable region and a human constant region, the method comprising: a) exposing a genetically modified mouse to an antigen, the mouse comprising in its germline at an endogenous heavy chain immunoglobulin locus human unrearranged heavy chain variable region gene segments linked to DNA encoding a mouse heavy chain constant region, such that the genetically modified mouse produces an antibody to the antigen, wherein the antibody has a human heavy chain variable region and a mouse heavy chain constant region; b) isolating DNA encoding the human heavy chain variable region of the antibody; c) operably linking in a cell the DNA encoding the human heavy chain variable region to DNA encoding a human heavy chain constant region; d) growing the cell under conditions such that the cell expresses an antibody comprising the human heavy chain variable region and the human heavy chain constant region.
 26. The method of claim 25, further comprising the step of making a hybridoma from the genetically modified mouse after step a), the hybridoma comprising DNA encoding the human heavy chain variable region of the antibody.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein the genetically modified mouse further comprises in its germline a light chain immunoglobulin locus comprising human unrearranged light chain variable region gene segments.
 28. The method of claim 25, wherein the cell is a CHO cell.
 29. The method of claim 25, wherein the DNA encoding the human heavy chain variable region of the antibody is isolated in step c) by PCR amplification or cDNA cloning.
 30. A method of generating a human immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region DNA sequence and a human light chain variable region DNA sequence, the method comprising: a) exposing a genetically modified mouse to an antigen such that the genetically modified mouse produces an antibody to the antigen, the mouse comprising in its germline: i. human unrearranged heavy chain variable region gene segments linked to DNA encoding a mouse heavy chain constant region at an endogenous heavy chain immunoglobulin locus; and ii. human unrearranged light chain variable region gene segments linked DNA encoding light chain constant region; and b) isolating DNA encoding the heavy and light chain variable regions of the antibody. 